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Copper (Cu) is not classified as a critical mineral by the EU –it is a relevant material for various low-carbon energy technologies. The apparent European consumption of copper is very high with 2.57 Mt per year, as it is an essential raw material for many industrial sectors, such as tubes and wiring, digital appliances, etc. Copper is mined in the EU, accounting for 4% of total global extraction. The EU’s refined copper production represents 12% of global production. Moreover, downstream industries producing rods, bars, wires, tubes, etc. are active in the EU, with approximately 80 companies accounting for 35,000 jobs.

Further information on copper is provided under the Renewable Energy Sectors, including primary copper production, challenges in the extraction phase, major copper mining companies globally and in Europe, copper mining plans in Europe, etc. More detailed information on copper can be found in the State of Play Report on the Renewable Energy Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for copper.

Cobalt (Co) is listed on the EU’s critical raw materials list. Cobalt is part of NMC (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide), which is the main cathode material for all types of electric vehicles batteries. Cobalt in most cases is extracted as a by-product of nickel or copper mining, although in different concentrations, linking its extraction to other metals. The majority of cobalt was produced in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), accounting for more than 70% of global supply in recent years. Further information on cobalt is provided under the Mobility Sector , including primary cobalt production, challenges in the extraction phase, major international cobalt mining companies, and cobalt mining plans in Europe, etc. More detailed information on cobalt can be found in the State of Play Report on the Mobility Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for cobalt.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) mainly use carbon-based anode materials, in particular graphite, because these materials are associated with both a long cycle life and outstanding electrochemical properties such as high energy density and efficiency Additionally, producing carbon anodes is rather cheap per energy content compared to other alternatives like lithium titanium oxide (LTO).

Natural graphite is classified as a critical mineral by the EU. It can either be mined in open pits or underground. Its counterpart, synthetic graphite, can be produced by heating coke or other carbon-based precursors. Both graphite forms must then be processed further before they can be used as anode materials. The different origins of natural graphite and synthetic graphite contribute to differences in their post-processing purity and their electrochemical properties.

Further information on graphite is provided under the Mobility Sector, including graphite production, challenges in the extraction phase and synthetic graphite production, major graphite mining and producing companies globally and in Europe, graphite mining plans in Europe, etc. More detailed information on graphite can be found in the State of Play Report on the Mobility Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System from the European Commission also provides information for graphite.

Lithium (Li) is classified as a critical mineral for the EU. Lithium is essential for lithium-ion batteries (LIB), although it only represents a small percentage of a battery cell’s weight (≈ 2 % per cell). According to Benchmark Minerals Intelligence (2020), LIBs are already responsible for 57% of lithium demand (ahead of glass and ceramics, lubricant/grease, metallurgy etc.)

Lithium is mined from hard rock (e.g. spodumene) or continental brines. Chile has the Earth’s largest lithium reserves (about 50% of worldwide estimates) in its salt flats within the arid ‘Lithium triangle’, an area covering parts of Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. Most hard-rock extraction of lithium occurs in Australia; USGS (2021) estimates this to be over 20% of worldwide reserves

In general, the global lithium value chain has not yet been fully established. However, demand and extraction have been rising strongly over the last few years, shifting away from South America as the major producing region to Australia.

Lithium is considered a relevant raw material in the mobility sector. Please see further information on lithium on the mobility sectors page, including primary lithium production, challenges in the extraction phase, major lithium mining companies globally and in Europe, lithium mining plans in Europe. More detailed information on nickel can be found in the State of Play Report on the Mobility Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for Lithium.

Nickel (Ni) is currently not included in the EU’s critical raw materials list. It the most common cathode material used for traction batteries, as part of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC). This cathode material comes with different ratios of transition metals (nickel, cobalt and manganese), although many producers tend to prefer high nickel ratios, as they increase the battery’s energy density. This also goes along with lower cobalt and manganese ratios.

The global production of nickel is much more distributed around the world than other battery materials. Since most nickel is used in steel production, lithium-ion batteries only use a fraction of global nickel production. Other nickel applications relate to defense systems, prompting countries around the world to consider securing their own supply. In general, nickel demand for batteries can be easily covered by the available supply. However, lithium-ion batteries need nickel with a very high degree of purification, which is only performed in certain countries.

Further information on nickel provided under the Mobility Sector, including primary nickel production, challenges in the extraction phase, major nickel mining companies globally and in Europe, nickel mining plans in Europe, etc.

More detailed information on nickel can be found in the State of Play Report on the Mobility Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for nickel.

Rare earth elements (REE) are classified as critical under the EU critical raw materials list. About 20% of total REE production is used to produce magnets (mainly neodymium, samarium, praseodymium, and dysprosium). These magnets are relevant for motors (electric vehicles) and generators (wind turbines), hard disc drives, speakers, etc. Depending on the future deployment of the permanent magnet motors and generators, a strong increase in demand for REE for renewable energy applications can be expected.

Concentrates of REE are mainly produced in China (in 2018 approximately 73.2%), which rose to fame in 2011, when they restricted the export of REE concentrates. Contrary to their name, the occurrences of REEs are not rare, but the extraction process is associated with major negative environmental impacts.

Further information on REEs is provided under the Renewable Energy Sector, including primary REE production, challenges in the extraction phase, major REE mining companies globally and in Europe, copper mining plans in Europe, etc. More detailed information on REE can be found in the State of Play Report on the Renewable Energy Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for REE.

Silicon is classified as critical mineral under the EU’s list of critical raw materials. The EU accounts for approximately 18% of global consumption and approximately6% of global supply of silicon metal. Pure silicon or silicon metal is mainly obtained from quartz (SiO2). The reserves and resources are abundant, the largest producer of silicon is China with more than 60% of global supply. Quartz can be extracted from vein type deposits by drilling and blasting or from fluvial deposits by excavation methods.

Worldwide, the solar industry accounts for 10% of total consumption of silicon. There are numerous quartz mines and resources reported throughout the EU, however, it is unclear whether these resources have the high purity required for silicon metal production.

Further information on silicon is provided under the Renewable Energy Sector, including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies globally and in Europe, etc. More detailed information on silicon can be found in the State of Play Report on the Renewable Energy Sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information for silicon.

Gold (Au) is not listed on the EU’s critical raw material list. Gold is a key mineral for the production of electronics due to its excellent conductivity, malleability and resistance to corrosion. Production of electronics account to the largest industrial demand of gold (representing 6% to 6.5% of annual global gold demand). Gold is mined on all continents of the world except Antarctica; around 25% comes from Africa, while only 1% is mined in Europe.

Gold is mainly mined in large scale mining, but also around 15% of global supply comes from artisanal and small-scale mining (supporting the livelihoods of millions of people). Both can result in adverse human rights and environmental impacts.

Further information on gold is provided under the EEE (electrical and electronic equipment) sectors including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies. More detailed information on gold can be found in the State of Play Report on the EEE sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information on gold.

Tantalum (Ta) is listed on the EU’s critical raw materials list. Tantalum is a rare metal that is very resistant to corrosion. The main application is to produce capacitors, where the electronics and telecommunications industries are the main consumer. With the shift to electric cars, the mobility sector is also increasing its tantalum consumption. Of all metals, tantalum has the highest share of artisanal and small-scale production with around 60% in the last 10 years.

Major tantalum mining area is the Great Lakes region in Africa. Other important mining locations are in Brazil and Nigeria. Major mining risks are land conflicts, erosion and deforestation as well as poor working conditions and health and safety issues in artisanal mining (which is often done informally).

Further information on tantalum is provided under the EEE sectors including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies. More detailed information on tantalum can be found in the State of Play Report on the EEE sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information on tantalum.

Tin (Sn) is not listed on the EU’s critical raw material list and is one of the oldest known metals of humans. Tin’s low melting point makes it ideal for solders, which is the main application (mostly for electronics). In the electronics industry solders are used for instance for soldering electrical and electronics circuits.

Main producing countries are China, Indonesia, and Myanmar accounting for more than 50% of global tin production. Tin production takes place onshore as well as offshore, representing different environmental challenges. Tin is mined in large scale as well as artisanal and small-scale mining. Both present serious social and environmental impacts.

Further information on tin is provided under the EEE sectors including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies. More detailed information on tin can be found in the State of Play Report on the EEE sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information on tin.

Tungsten (W) is listed on the EU’s critical raw material list. It has the highest melting point of all metals and is used as an alloy to strengthen other metals. The largest end-use of tungsten is as tungsten carbide, which is utilised for the manufacturing of electronics, for instance in the vibration motors of mobile phones. China is by far the largest producer of tungsten with more that 80% of global production.

While tungsten itself is non-toxic to humans, occupational exposure to tungsten can result in serious health impacts. Also, mine waste from tungsten poses serious threats to the environment. Further information on tungsten is provided under the EEE sectors including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies. More detailed information on tungsten can be found in the State of Play Report on the EEE sector.

The Raw Materials Information System also provides information on tungsten.

Mica is not listed in the EUs material lists. The extraordinary qualities of mica explain the wide use across many sectors. It is a perfect insulator in several ways due to its low thermal and electrical conductivity, high dielectric strength, and chemical inertness. This means it is resistant against extremely high temperatures and very high voltages and does not react to chemicals and is also very light. Sheet mica and splittings are used for electrical appliances and electronics like capacitors, resistors, insulators, encoders and DRAM. In the automotive sector mica is used for paints, coatings, brake and clutch pads, batteries, components in the motor, cylinders, compressors, plastics, LED lamps, pumps and various electronic parts.

The biggest mine production of mica is in China, followed by India, Canada, Madagascar, and France. Mining of mica often takes place as informal artisanal and small-scale mining, which is associated with extremely low wages, poor and unsafe working conditions, child labour. Further information on mica is provided under the EEE sectors including primary production, challenges in the extraction phase, major mining companies.

More detailed information on mica can be found in the State of Play Report on the EEE sector.